Abstract
Manganese (Mn) oxides are among the strongest sorbents and oxidants within the environment, controlling the fate and transport of numerous elements and the degradation of recalcitrant carbon. Both bacteria and fungi mediate the oxidation of Mn(II) to Mn(III/IV) oxides but the genetic and biochemical mechanisms responsible remain poorly understood. Furthermore, the physiological basis for microbial Mn(II) oxidation remains an enigma. We have recently reported that a common marine bacterium (Roseobacter sp. AzwK-3b) oxidizes Mn(II) via reaction with extracellular superoxide (O2-) produced during exponential growth. Here we expand this superoxide-mediated Mn(II) oxidation pathway to fungi, introducing a surprising homology between prokaryotic and eukaryotic metal redox processes. For instance, Stibella aciculosa, a common soil Ascomycete filamentous fungus, precipitates Mn oxides at the base of asexual reproductive structures (synnemata) used to support conidia (Figure 1). This distribution is a consequence of localized production of superoxide (and it's dismutation product hydrogen peroxide, H (sub 2) O (sub 2) ), leading to abiotic oxidation of Mn(II) by superoxide. Disruption of NADPH oxidase activity using the oxidoreductase inhibitor DPI leads to diminished cell differentiation and subsequent Mn(II) oxidation inhibition. Addition of Cu(II) (an effective superoxide scavenger) leads to a concentration dependent decrease in Mn oxide formation. We predict that due to the widespread production of extracellular superoxide within the fungal and likely bacterial kingdoms, biological superoxide may be an important contributor to the cycling of Mn, as well as other metals (e.g., Hg, Fe). Current and future explorations of the genes and proteins involved in superoxide production and Mn(II) oxidation will ideally lend insight into the physiological and biochemical basis for these processes.