Abstract
In Chapter 4, Gloria Frost reconstructs and analyzes three medieval models proposed to understand how God and creatures cooperate to cause changes in the created world. The first model, defended by Thomas Aquinas, views God and creatures’ cooperation along the lines of an artisan and the instrument which she uses (e.g. a writer and a pen). God is said to apply or move creaturely powers to their activities. Frost goes on to explain why Duns Scotus rejected the instrumental model, and then she explains his alternative model. Scotus conceived of God and creatures as “co-causes” of effects similarly to how a male and female cooperate in the production of the child. Each cause depends on the other to cause the effect, but, unlike in the instrumental model, neither cause is moved or applied to action by the other. Finally, Frost explores a third model proposed by the lesser-known late medieval thinkers Peter Auriol and Peter Olivi. In their view, God merely sustains creaturely causes in existence, but he does not make any direct contribution to the actions of creatures. Frost discusses their dissatisfaction with the other models, as well as their reasons in favor of their own view.